Résultats de la recherche

15 Jan 2021 B

The Indonesian Competition Authority imposes its first predatory pricing fine against a multinational cement manufacturer (CKSC)

Chalid Heyder, Dyah Paramita • January 2021

In a release, Komisi Pengawas Persaingan Usaha (KPPU) – the Indonesian Competition Authority, published its first Article 20 (Predatory Pricing) decision. The KPPU Decision No. 03/KPPU-L/2020 was issued on a virtual hearing on 15 January 2021, whereby KPPU found that PT Conch South Kalimantan (...)

30 Oct 2020 B

The EU Commission sends a statement of objections to state-owned Czech rail incumbent for alleged predatory pricing (České dráhy)

European Commission • October 2020

Antitrust: The Commission sends Statement of Objections to České dráhy for alleged predatory pricing* The European Commission has informed the state-owned Czech rail incumbent České dráhy (ČD) of its preliminary view that ČD has breached EU antitrust rules by charging prices below costs. Executive (...)

11 Sep 2020 B

The Indian Competition Authority dismisses allegations of abuse of dominance and exclusive arrangements against e-commerce company in the market for fashion merchandise (Lifestyle Equities / Amazon)

Abhishekh Mishra • September 2020

In an order dated 11.09.2020, the Competition Commission of India (hereinafter ‘CCI’ or ‘the Commission’) dismissed the allegations of abuse of dominance and, entering into anti- competitive agreements against Amazon and the other opposite parties. The Indian Antitrust watchdog observed that Amazon (...)

27 Jul 2020 B

The US House Subcommittee on Antitrust, Commercial and Administrative Law holds hearings of a multinational online retail platform for antitrust claims (Amazon / Google / Apple / Facebook)

Steven J. Cernak • July 2020

Big Tech Hearings: What Do They Tell Us About Amazon and Antitrust?* The U.S. House Antitrust Subcommittee of the Judiciary Committee’s recent hearings into “big tech” and antitrust were “must see TV” for antitrust attorneys. Over the five hours of testimony, many interesting questions were asked (...)

6 Jul 2020 C

Innovation Economics Conference for Antitrust Lawyers #4 "Platforms: The Envelopment Strategy" & Closing speech

Daniele Condorelli, Alexandre de Cornière, Amelia Fletcher, Andreas Mundt, Mike Walker, Richard Whish, Peter Roth

4th Webinar and Closing Speech of the « 4th Innovation Economics Conference » organised by Concurrences, in partnership with Compass Lexecon, with Daniele Condorelli (Associate Professor, University of Warwick, Academic Affiliate at Compass Lexecon), Alexandre de Cornière (Assistant Professor, (...)

29 May 2020 B

The Indian Competition Appellate Tribunal interprets strictly ’sufficient cause’ in an appellate framework for Competition matters to tackle forum shopping practices (MAJ. PANKAJ RAI / NITT)

Aanchal Pandey, Shubham Tiwary • May 2020

The National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) in New Delhi, India’s appellate tribunal for competition matters has given a decisive ruling for appeals of orders of the Competition Commission of India (CCI). In Maj. Pankaj Rai v Secretary, Competition Commission of India decided in May, (...)

29 May 2020 B

The Indian Competition Appellate Tribunal gives a decisive ruling for appeals of orders of the Indian Competition Authority (Maj. Pankaj Rai)

Shubham Tiwary, Aanchal Pandey • May 2020

The National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) in New Delhi, India’s appellate tribunal for competition matters has given a decisive ruling for appeals of orders of the Competition Commission of India (CCI). In Maj. Pankaj Rai v Secretary, Competition Commission of India decided in May, (...)

31 Jan 2020 eB

2020 Competition Case Law Digest - A Synthesis of EU, US and National Leading Cases Dominance in the Pharmaceutical Sector

Marion Provost, Mélanie Thill-Tayara

539 Dominance in the Pharmaceutical Sector: An Overview of EU and National Case Law m élAnie t hill -t A yArA, m Arion P roVost * Dechert (Paris) melanie.thill-tayara@dechert.com marion.provost@dechert.com I. Introduction The pharmaceutical sector stands out as being regularly under the scrutiny (...)

31 Jan 2020 eB

2020 Competition Case Law Digest - A Synthesis of EU, US and National Leading Cases Price Abuses

Sean Ennis

97 Price Abuses: An Overview of EU and National Case Law seAn e nnis University of east Anglia s.ennis@uea.ac.uk i. introduction * Allegations of pricing abuses have tested the boundaries of competition law for more than a century and remain an important activity for many competition (...)

30 janv. 2020 R

Prix prédateurs : La Cour de justice de l’Union européenne rejette les pourvois dirigés contre la Commission européenne dans l’affaire des pratiques de prédation mises en oeuvre par l’opérateur historique ferroviaire tchèque (České dráhy)

Alain Ronzano • N° 2-2020

Le 30 janvier 2020, la Cour de justice de l’Union européenne a rendu un arrêt dans les affaires jointes C-538/18 et C-539/18 (České dráhy a.s. contre Commission européenne) à la faveur duquel elle rejette l’intégralité des pourvois introduits par l’opérateur historique ferroviaire tchèque, České dráhy, (...)

30 janv. 2020 R

Inspections : La Cour de justice de l’Union européenne rejette les pourvois contre les arrêts relatifs aux décisions d’inspection successives de la compagnie de chemin de fer nationale tchèque (České dráhy)

Pascal Cardonnel • N° 2-2020 • p. 158

La Cour rejette les pourvois formés contre les arrêts du Tribunal du 20 juin 2018 České dráhy (aff. T‑325/16, EU:T:2018:368, et T‑621/16 EU:T:2018:367), en application de principes fermement établis. Ces affaires avaient pour origine commune des inspections de la Commission dans les locaux de la (...)

30 Jan 2020 B

The EU Court of Justice dismisses the appeals against the Commission’s decisions in the case of alleged predatory practices by the Czech railway incumbent (České dráhy)

Donald Slater • January 2020

On 30 January 2020, the European Court of Justice dismissed the appeals in joined cases C-538/18 P and C-539/18 P brought by Czech national rail carrier České dráhy, which sought to set aside the judgments of the General Court in cases T‑325/16 and T‑621/16 upholding the European Commission’s (...)

21 Nov 2019 B

Dominance in the pharmaceutical sector: An overview of EU and national case law

Mélanie Thill-Tayara, Marion Provost • Pharma & Dominance

The pharmaceutical sector stands out as being regularly under the scrutiny of competition authorities throughout Europe and has continued to be a key enforcement priority over the past 18 months, with notable developments in pay-for-delay and excessive pricing cases, as well as on market (...)

28 Oct 2019 B

The Indian Competition Commission orders an investigation against online travel agencies for imposing vertical restrictions and abuse of dominance (MakeMyTrip / OYO)

Soumya Hariharan, Nandita Sahai, Sakshi Agarwal • October 2019

Introduction The Federation of Hotel & Restaurant Associations of India (Informant), an association of hotels and restaurants in India, filed an Information with the Competition Commission of India (CCI) against MakeMyTrip India Pvt. Ltd. (MMT), Ibibo Group Private Limited (GoIbibo), (...)

3 Sep 2019 B

The Indian Supreme Court flips its jurisprudence on abuse of dominance in a case involving radios taxis alleged of predatory pricing (Uber)

Kavita Jitani • September 2019

On September 3, 2019 The Supreme Court of India vide its judgement in Uber India Systems Pvt. Ltd. (Uber) v. Competition Commission of India (CCI) appears to have flipped the jurisprudence on abuse of dominance under the Indian Competition Act, 2002 (the “Act”) by requiring the assessment of the (...)

3 Sep 2019 B

The Indian Supreme Court dismisses an appeal against an investigation into allegations of abuse of dominance (Uber)

Basu Chandola • September 2019

SUPREME COURT OF INDIA UPHOLDS INVESTIGATION AGAINST UBER* The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India has dismissed an appeal[Uber India Systems Pvt. Ltd v Competition Commission of India, Civil Appeal No. 641 of 2017] filed by Uber India Systems Pvt. Ltd. (‘Uber’) against an order of the erstwhile (...)

3 Sep 2019 B

The Indian Supreme Court requests the Competition Authority’s Director General to continue the investigation allegations relating the abuse of dominance in the radio taxis sector (Uber)

Pallavi Shroff, John Handoll, Naval Satarawala Chopra, Shweta Shroff Chopra, Harman Singh Sandhu, Manika Brar, Aparna Mehra, Gauri Chhabra, Yaman Verma, Rohan Arora • September 2019

Deciding on an appeal from the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT), the Supreme Court requested the Director General, CCI (DG) to continue investigating allegations relating to abuse of dominance by Uber in the National Capital Region (NCR). [1] In considering whether the (...)

18 Jul 2019 B

The EU Commission fines a chipmaker company €242 million for predatory pricing (Qualcomm)

European Commission • July 2019

Antitrust: Commission fines US chipmaker Qualcomm €242 million for engaging in predatory pricing* The European Commission has fined Qualcomm €242 million for abusing its market dominance in 3G baseband chipsets. Qualcomm sold below cost, with the aim of forcing its competitor Icera out of the (...)

18 Jul 2019 B

The EU Commission fines a chipmaker company €242 million for predatory pricing in the market of 3G baseband chipsets (Qualcomm)

Maurits Dolmans, David Little, Wanjie Lin • July 2019

This article has been nominated for the 2020 Antitrust Writing Awards. Click here to learn more about the Antitrust Writing Awards. On 18 July 2019, the European Commission (“EC”) fined Qualcomm for abusing its market dominance by selling 3G baseband chipsets below cost, to force its competitor (...)

18 juil. 2019 R

Notion d’abus : La Commission européenne inflige au fabricant dominant de circuits intégrés une amende de 242 millions d’euros pour une pratique de prix d’éviction (Qualcomm)

Alain Ronzano • N° 4-2019

Le 18 juillet 2019, la Commission européenne a annoncé qu’elle avait infligé à Qualcomm une amende de 242 millions d’euros, laquelle représente 1,27 % de son chiffre d’affaires, pour avoir abusé de la position dominante qu’elle occupait sur le marché des chipsets de bande de base 3G, lesquels permettent (...)

18 Jul 2019 B

The EU Commission fines a company €242 million for engaging in predatory pricing in the market for 3G baseband chipsets (Qualcomm)

Tim Kasten • July 2019

On 18 July 2019, the Commission announced that it had adopted a decision against Qualcomm for abusing a dominant position in the market for 3G baseband chipsets, and imposed a fine of € 242 million. According to the Commission, Qualcomm’s prices to certain key customers were below its costs with (...)

18 juil. 2019 R

Abus d’éviction : La Commission européenne sanctionne l’opérateur dominant sur le marché des puces électroniques pour la norme 3G pour une stratégie de prix prédateurs (Qualcomm)

Frédéric Marty • N° 4-2019 • pp. 98-99

La Commission européenne a sanctionné Qualcomm pour abus d’éviction sur le marché des circuits intégrés. La stratégie d’éviction anticoncurrentielle mise en œuvre reposait, selon la Commission, sur une stratégie de prix prédateurs. Cette décision, assortie d’une sanction de 242 millions d’euros, n’est pour (...)

18 Jul 2019 B

The EU Commission fines €242 million a baseband chipset manufacturer for abusing its dominant position (Qualcomm)

José Rivas • July 2019

In the first predatory pricing case since 2003, the European Commission ("EC") has fined Qualcomm €242million for abusing its market power by engaging, between 2009 and 2011, in below cost sales of its 3G baseband chipsets, key components of mobile devices (see EC press release here). This fine (...)

27 Jun 2019 B

The Canadian Competition Bureau announces that ticket vendors will pay $4 million penalty to settle drip pricing advertising case (Ticketmaster)

Steve Szentesi • June 2019

TICKETMASTER ENTITIES AGREE TO $4 MILLION PENALTY TO SETTLE DRIP PRICING ADVERTISING CASE On June 27, 2019, the Competition Bureau (Bureau) announced that Ticketmaster L.L.C., TNow Entertainment Group, Inc. and Ticketmaster Canada LP have agreed to pay a $4 million penalty and $500,000 of the (...)

27 Jun 2019 B

The District Court of Rotterdam annuls a €41 million fine imposed by the Dutch Competition Authority on a railway operator for allegedly abusing its dominant position (Nederlandse Spoorwegen)

Mariska Van De Sanden, Tialda Beetstra • June 2019

ABUSE OF DOMINANCE FINE OF € 41 MILLION FOR DUTCH RAILWAY OPERATOR ANNULED* Introduction The Authority for Consumers and Markets (“ACM“, the Dutch competition authority) was in 2017 – after years of silence – finally able to fine an undertaking for abuse of dominance. A heavy fine of almost € 41 (...)

27 Jun 2019 B

The Dutch District court annuls a €41 million fine imposed on a rail transport incumbent for allegedly abusing of its dominant position (Nederlandse Spoorwegen)

Pauline Kuipers, Piet-Hein Eijssen • June 2019

On 27 June 2019 the District Court of Rotterdam annulled the decision of the Authority for Consumers and Markets ("ACM", the Dutch competition authority) to impose a fine of € 41 million on Dutch rail transport incumbent N.V. Nederlandse Spoorwegen ("NS") for abusing its dominant position (100%) (...)

18 Jun 2019 B

The Helsinki District Court hands down two judgements regarding compensation of harm resulting from predatory pricing in the milk market (Maitomaa / Maitokolmio / Valio)

Päivi Tammilehto, Katia Duncker • June 2019

In June 2019, the District Court of Helsinki handed down two judgments regarding compensation of harm resulting from predatory pricing. The claims for damages were brought before the court by two milk producers’ cooperatives, Maitomaa and Maitokolmio, with respect to a predatory pricing case in (...)

6 Jun 2019 B

Competition law in the railway transport sector: An overview of EU and national case law

David Henry • Transport (rail)

The rail sector is notorious for its complexity and its endemic competition problems. In a damning account of the state of play in this sector, the European Commission (“EC”) recently lamented the continued absence of effective competition and innovation therein. Furthermore, the risks of (...)

2 May 2019 B

Price Abuses: An overview of EU and national case law

Sean Ennis • Price abuses

Allegations of pricing abuses have tested the boundaries of competition law for more than a century and remain an important activity for many competition authorities and courts. While pricing abuses constituted key parts of some early antitrust case, many commentators have urged that they are (...)

1 May 2019 R

USA/EU: The convergence and specifics of EU competition law and American antitrust law regarding the prohibition of price scissors as constitutive of abuse of dominance

Kane Abry-Diaw de Baye • N° 2-2019

In this paper, the author reports on how the European and American Competition Authorities apprehend margin squeeze, viz. the fact for dominant undertakings operating simultaneously as vertically-integrated entities and as downstream market participants to increase wholesale prices by reducing (...)

9 Apr 2019 B

The EU General Court dismisses appeal against Commission’s request for information (Qualcomm)

Martin Favart • April 2019

On 9 April 2019, the General Court (“GC”) dismissed the appeal lodged by Qualcomm against the Commission’s decision of 31 March 2017 requesting information in the context of an investigation against Qualcomm for alleged predatory pricing contrary to Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of (...)

5 mars 2019 eB

La réparation des préjudices causés par les pratiques anticoncurrentielles Section 2. L’évaluation des préjudices causés par des pratiques d’éviction

Jean-François Laborde, Rafael P. Amaro

Recueil de décisions commentées – R. Amaro et J.-F. Laborde 181 c) Mais, parce qu'elle a augmenté ses prix, la demanderesse a vu le volume de ses ventes diminuer, ce qui lui a causé une perte de marge d'environ 3 millions de couronnes 376. d) Le préjudice indemnisable ressort donc à environ 15 − (...)

6 Nov 2018 B

The Indian Competition Authority dismisses abuse of dominance allegations in the market for online marketplace platforms because it finds no dominance in the relevant market (All India Online Vendors Association / Flipkart India)

Man Mohan Sharma • November 2018

CCI defines online sale platform as a separate relevant market -holds neither Flipkart nor Amazon as dominant in the market for online marketplace platforms* CCI, by way of order dated 06.11.2018 has dismissed allegations against Flipkart India Private Limited (“Flipkart India”) and Flipkart (...)

1^er oct. 2018 eB

Petit manuel (irrévérencieux) d’économie Chapitre 8. Résister, encore et toujours, à l’illusion protectionniste

Emmanuel Combe

197 Chapitre 8 Résister, encore et toujours, à l’illusion protectionniste Avec l’élection de Donald Trump aux Etats-Unis et l’essor de mouvements populistes en Europe – à l’image de la France Insoumise o\ u du Front National dans notre pays-, le protectionnisme n’a jamais reçu un écho aussi favorable (...)

19 Sep 2018 B

The EU Commission sends out formal requests of information to investigate allegations of an anticompetitive conduct by a multinational online retailer (Amazon)

Thomas Höppner, Phillip Westerhoff • September 2018

In September 2018, the European Commission (“EC”) sent out formal requests for information (“RFIs”) to investigate allegations of an anticompetitive conduct by Amazon. The investigation relates to the interdependencies between Amazon’s third-party sales platform for retailers (“Amazon Marketplace”) (...)

19 Jul 2018 B

The EU Commission sends a supplementary statement of objection to a manufacturer of LTE baseband chipsets for predatory pricing practices (Qualcomm)

Robert Bell • July 2018

QUALCOMM RECEIVES SUPPLEMENTARY STATEMENT OF OBJECTIONS FROM THE EU COMMISSION IN PREDATORY PRICING INVESTIGATION* Hot on the heels of the announcement of a record antitrust fine imposed by the European antitrust regulator upon another US technology company , the European Commission announced (...)

9 Jul 2018 B

The Democratic Republic of Congo implements the “Competition Act” which abrogates and replaces a set of laws dated from colonial and post-independence times

Bertrand Montembault, Olivier Binyingo, Sergio Sorinas, Jean Meijer • July 2018

On 9 July 2018, the Democratic Republic of Congo (“DRC”) joined the group of African countries that have recently established modern domestic competition law regimes, after President Joseph Kabila signed into law the Organic Law no. 18/020 on Pricing Freedom and Competition (the “Competition Act” (...)

5 juil. 2018 R

Dommage : La Cour de justice de l’Union européenne juge que les pertes subies à la suite d’une pratique de prix prédateurs peuvent constituer un dommage fondant la compétence des juridictions du lieu où il s’est matérialisé aux fins d’une action en réparation (flyLAL-Lithuanian Airlines)

Alexandre Lacresse • N° 4-2018 • pp.166-168

Cette affaire pose la très intéressante question du sort de l’action en réparation d’un dommage anticoncurrentiel dans un contexte international, en particulier en ce qu’elle interroge sur le “lieu où le fait dommageable s’est produit” au sens de la convention de Bruxelles de 1968 sur la compétence (...)

24 May 2018 B

The Croatian Competition Authority finds that a dominant telecommunication company did not abuse its dominance through predatory pricing (VIPnet)

Croatian Competition Authority • May 2018

VIPnet – no abuse of dominant position* The Croatian Competition Agency (CCA) found that VIPnet did not abuse a dominant position in the access to public telephone network at a fixed location for residential and/or non-residential customers, retail fixed broadband access and Pay television in (...)

8 Mar 2018 B

The Turkish Competition Authority decides not to open an investigation against a company active in online sales of flowers, edible flowers and gifts following allegations of predatory pricing (Çiçek Sepeti)

Eda Duru, Gönenç Gürkaynak • March 2018

This case summary includes an analysis of the Turkish Competition Board’s (“Competition Board” or “Board”) Çiçek Sepeti decision (08.03.2018; 18-07/111-58). The Board reviewed the allegations put forward by Çiçek Satış A.Ş. (“Çiçek Satış”) against Çiçek Sepeti İnternet Hizmetleri A.Ş. (“Çiçek Sepeti”) (...)

5 Mar 2018 B

The US District Court for the Northern District of California denies a motion for class certification for a proposed class of indirect purchasers of lithium ion batteries (Lithium Ion Batteries)

Matt Evola • March 2018

Indirect purchaser plaintiffs’ motion for class certification in a lithium ion battery suit was denied for failing to show concrete evidence linking increased input costs to increased end-product prices; theoretical inference is not enough. What happened: The US District Court for the Northern (...)

31 Oct 2017 eB

Buyer Power in EU Competition Law Part IV. Exerting Buyer Power. Exclusion and Exploitation
Chapter 6. Exclusionary Buyer Power

Ignacio Herrera Anchustegui

PART IV EXERTING BUYER POWER. EXCLUSION AND EXPLOITATION I. Herrera Anchustegui — Buyer Power in EU Competition Law 2076 EXCLUSIONARY BUYER POWER I. Introduction to Part IV and buyer power exclusion This Part IV constitutes the core of this study as it deals with the conducts and theories of (...)

15 sept. 2017 R

Etats-Unis : Le Tribunal du district Sud de l’Iowa rejette une allégation de tentative de monopolisation, fondée sur des pratiques de compression de marges, dans le secteur des sodas (Mahaska Bottling v. PepsiCo)

Jean-Christophe Roda • N° 1-2018 • pp. 211-214

Par une décision du 15 septembre 2017, le Tribunal fédéral du district Sud de l’Iowa était amené à se prononcer sur une allégation de tentative de monopolisation, elle-même basée sur des pratiques tarifaires mises en œuvre par un des géants du secteur des sodas, l’entreprise PepsiCo. La plaignante, un (...)

7 sept. 2017 R

Prix prédateurs : L’Autorité de la concurrence accepte et rend obligatoires les engagements souscrits par l’opérateur gazier historique à propos de ses offres de marché (Engie)

Alain Ronzano • N° 4-2017

À la faveur d’une décision n° 17-D-16 rendue le 7 septembre 2017, l’Autorité de la concurrence a accepté et rendu obligatoire les engagements pris par Engie à propos de pratiques tarifaires relatives aux offres de marché de gaz. Ce faisant, elle clôt la procédure au fond ouverte en octobre 2015 à la (...)

19 Jul 2017 B

The Indian Competition Authority dismisses allegations of abuse of dominance against a company in the market for radio taxi services and holds that high market share does not by itself constitute dominance (Fast Track Call Cab / ANI Technologies / OLA Cabs)

Man Mohan Sharma • July 2017

CCI closes case of alleged abuse of dominance by ANI Technologies Pvt. Ltd. (OLA)* The CCI vide order dated July 19, 2017 closed the case of alleged abuse of dominant position by OLA. The complaint against OLA was filed by Fast Track Call Cab Pvt. Ltd. and Meru Travel Solutions Pvt. Ltd. (...)

9 Jun 2017 B

The Indian Competition Authority dismisses allegations of abuse of dominance against a company in the market for wireless telecommunications services and holds that financial strength does not by itself constitute dominance (Reliance Jio Infocomm)

Man Mohan Sharma • June 2017

CCI closes allegations of abuse of dominance against Reliance Jio* CCI vide its orders dated June 9, 2017 and June 15, 2017 closed allegations of abuse of dominant position against Reliance Jio Infocomm Limited (RJIL). The Informant in the first case was Bharti Airtel Limited (Airtel) and the (...)

1^er juin 2017 R

Prix prédateurs : L’Autorité de la concurrence rejette une plainte pour prix prédateur sur le marché naissant du transport par autocar en France (Transport de voyageurs)

Anne-Lise Sibony • N° 3-2017 • pp. 77-79

Bien qu’il s’agisse d’une décision de rejet, la décision de l’Autorité de la concurrence relative à des pratiques mises en œuvre dans le secteur du transport de voyageurs par autocar présente un intérêt dans la mesure où c’est la première décision rendue dans ce secteur ouvert à la concurrence par la loi (...)

1 Jun 2017 B

The Indian Competition Authority clears dominant mobile messaging service from abuse of dominance allegations (Fight for Transparency Society / WhatsApp)

Man Mohan Sharma • June 2017

CCI closes allegation of abuse of dominance against WhatsApp* CCI vide its recent order dated June 01, 2017 has closed an allegation of abuse of dominant position against popular message service WhatsApp. The complaint against WhatsApp was filed by an individual Vinod Kumar Gupta on behalf of (...)

22 May 2017 B

The Dutch Competition Authority fines €40,950 million a rail operator for winning tenders through various abuses of dominance (Nederlandse Spoorwegen)

Tim Kasten • Price abuses

On 29 June 2017, the Dutch Competition Authority (“DCA”) published the non-con dential version of a decision of 22 May 2017 imposing a €40.95 million fine on Dutch rail operator Nederlandse Spoorwegen (“NS”) for abusing its dominant position in the context of a tender for public transport services (...)

22 May 2017 B

The Dutch Competition Authority finds that the incumbent rail company abused its dominant position with two separate infringements (Nederlandse Spoorwegen)

Geneviève Borremans • May 2017

In the Netherlands, the public transport by rail is organised in two ways. On the one hand, there is the main railway network, which mainly covers the intercity connections and is exploited by NS. On the other hand, there are the regional railway networks, which include slow train services. The (...)

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