OECD

A perceived reduction of the intensity of competition has been used by some to criticise competition authorities and to propose radical changes to competition law systems. The ability to reliably measure, track and compare the competitive intensity of a market is extremely valuable to (...)

There have been increasing calls for greater clarity on the way that potential competition is treated within competition law. This reflects the fact that the importance of potential competition in the competitive analysis of many markets has been increasing as the pace of product evolution (...)

Data portability has been identified as a procompetitive measure to empower consumers to choose among competing providers. Specifically, data portability could theoretically reduce the switching costs consumers face, for example if they must reproduce all of the information and content inputted (...)

Regulators are becoming increasingly concerned about rises in market power and the growing influence of the large digital platforms within and beyond the marketplace. These concerns include economic aspects such as whether these companies are purposefully moving to prevent competition, as well (...)

Compliance programmes can be helpful complements to public enforcement activity : ideally by preventing competition law violations in the first place. Important developments have taken place since the last OECD discussion on compliance programmes in 2011. Many OECD competition agencies have (...)

Economic regulation and competition policy are interdependent instruments of economic policy which, while distinct, can have overlapping scopes. Competition law seeks to strengthen the workings of markets by prohibiting certain forms of anticompetitive behaviour that, alone or in concert, have (...)

The debate on how best to use and adjust the current competition policy framework and tools to deliver benefits to society in a changing world continues to evolve as competition authorities gain experience in both antitrust and merger cases in various industries. This experience has shown that (...)

Economic analysis is a fundamental part of merger control. It underpins the theories of harm that guide merger reviews, and it provides the tools to interpret evidence when assessing these theories. Economic expertise can be of value at each stage of a merger investigation, from evidence (...)

Many digital markets exhibit certain characteristics, such as low variable costs, high fixed costs and strong network effects, that result in high market shares for a small number of firms. In some cases, these lead to “competition for the market” dynamics, in which a single firm captures the (...)

Public and private entities across the globe are called to strengthen their commitment to the UN Sustainable Development Goals, which include, among others, tackling poverty and inequality, promoting sustainable agriculture, supporting affordable and clean energy, promoting responsible (...)

Competition in the digital economy is increasingly a competition between ecosystems. The most successful digital companies in recent years have been building their business model around large ecosystems of complementary products and services around their core service. Integration of a wide (...)

As the COVID-19 crisis develops and moves through different stages including soon towards economic recovery, governments, policymakers and regulators, including competition authorities, face different challenges in order to support a swift and robust recovery. In a world hard hit by a pandemic (...)

Digital advertising is now the leading form of advertising in most if not all OECD countries, and offers businesses the ability to reach consumers in ways that could only have been imagined previously. Increased Internet coverage and mobile phone penetration has fundamentally changed the (...)

Privacy and consumer data rights are gaining more attention across the globe as more and more consumers come to rely on the services offered in the digital economy. Consumer data rights can include fundamental rights to privacy, as well as regulations controlling the manner in which consumers (...)

Questions over the competitive effects of the acquisition of start-ups or ‘nascent’ firms, by dominant incumbents have become a key part of the debate on how the effective merger control regimes have been in protecting competition during a period of increasing profits. One of the most discussed (...)

Conglomerate effects arise when a merger has an effect on competition, but the merging firms’ products are not in the same product market, nor are they inputs or outputs of one another. Mergers exhibiting conglomerate effects have taken on a new prominence in the digital era, as the largest (...)

Sanctions against cartels vary greatly across jurisdictions, from monetary fines against firms and other legal persons, to criminal sanctions (including custodial sentences) against individuals. In the last years, an increased adoption of criminal enforcement regimes has been observed across (...)

Line of business restrictions are restrictions that limit the kind of activities that the operator of a facility can undertake. These restrictions can be structural in the sense that they prohibit a firm from engaging in a line of business, as set out in the OECD Recommendation on Structural (...)

One of the many consequences of the COVID-19 crisis is the disruption of supply chains. Together with increased demand, this has led to shortages in a number of essential products. These shortages are influencing the behaviour of firms and may have led to potentially exploitative prices in some (...)

In the extraordinary circumstances of the COVID-19 crisis, there are a number of reasons that may push competing companies to collaborate with one another and a number of ways in which consumers and the economy may benefit from these collaborations. This note examines some typical situations (...)

Health concerns, confinement measures and border closures adopted in the wake of the Covid-19 crisis have caused severe disruption in the supply and distribution chain of goods, works and services that the public sector needs. At the same time, public buyers around the world need some goods (...)

One of the many consequences of the COVID-19 crisis is the risk that many firms will find themselves in financial distress and forced to exit the market or merge. This note focuses on competition issues relating to merger control. It serves as background material and raises issues for (...)

Some products have characteristics that lead firms to compete to be the supplier of a whole market of product or services, rather than for market share (whether it be a share of units, of contracts or of consumer relationships). These might for example include : a) natural monopolies (with (...)

The modern competition dynamics observed in rapidly-evolving sectors, such as high-technology, consumer services and online retail, is challenging the role of competition authorities in merger control, where enforcement decisions fundamentally depend on an effects-based analysis of the likely (...)

The majority of trade agreements include a competition policy chapter or individual competition provisions. These cover a range of issues, such as the adoption or maintenance of competition laws, international co-operation on competition policy or the introduction of procedural safeguards. In (...)

The current policy debate criticising the activities of competition authorities is broad and wide ranging from questioning the inadequacy of the consumer welfare standard, to concerns about the current merger control standards. Competition authorities face questions about the effectiveness of (...)

Hub-and-spoke arrangements are horizontal restrictions on the supplier or retailer level (the “spokes”), which are implemented through vertically related players that serve as a common “hub” (e.g., a common manufacturer, retailer or service provider). The “hub” facilitates the co-ordination of (...)

Most of the focus in relation to barriers has been on barriers to entry and their effects on competition. However, for competition to be effective there must also be firm exit. Barriers to exit, like barriers to entry, decrease the market discipline mechanisms of the competitive process to (...)

Providing access to evidence in a competition agency’s case file protects the parties’ rights of defence and promotes the transparency of the system. The extent and the timing of this access vary across jurisdictions. Agencies depend on access to confidential information provided by parties and (...)

Independent regulators are those that operate autonomously and with no undue influence from political forces or private entities. This independence, and their relationship with competition authorities that focus on merger control and antitrust enforcement, is important as an effective regulator (...)

The financial sector has been the object of many innovations in recent years, with significant impact on consumers and on regulation. Retail banking is no longer solely branch-based, but can be conducted in many ways, including using mobile telephones. Banks have had to adapt their business (...)

Vertical mergers are increasingly becoming a focus of attention in the antitrust sphere, due to a number of recent concentration operations among large vertically related companies in the technology, media and telecom industries. While traditionally presumed as pro-competitive, vertical mergers (...)

IP rights, which create temporary exclusive rights that protect investments in research and some creative activities, have taken on an increasingly prominent and extensive role in economic activity – and in market competition as well. As the economy digitalises and the importance of intangible (...)

A recent fall in the labour share of income has helped fuel rising inequality and populist demand for dramatic reform of competition law. While these pushes cannot find an immediate response in competition law enforcement, they have stirred a debate within the competition community on monopsony (...)

Review by the courts of the enforcement of competition law ensures that the enforcement process and decisions are lawful, the parties’ rights are observed and competition authorities’ discretion is defined. Parties should have access to impartial review of decisions by an independent adjudicator. (...)

Education services are fundamental for economic and social well-being. They not only directly boost public sector productivity, but also the productivity of workers across the economy by improving their skills, increasing their capacity to add value, and giving them the ability to adapt to new (...)

Like private firms, State-owned enterprises (SOEs) might seek to maximise profit, even if they ultimately re-invest the surplus that they earn. Alternatively, their objective might be to expand their output, or they may have another goal. Regardless of their objectives, there remains a risk (...)

Competition policy usually thinks in terms of consumers and firms, government and regulators. Traditionally, consumers have been considered only by their willingness to pay, their (rational) preferences, their ability to substitute between products offered by firms. Meanwhile, firms are treated (...)

Competition authorities assume a crucial and challenging mission : protecting competition in the markets. This mission requires intensive evidence and data gathering. To meet this end, competition authorities are armed with various investigative powers ranging from voluntary interviews to (...)

When merging parties fail to notify a merger to the competition authority, implement all or parts of the merger during mandatory waiting periods or co-ordinate their competitive behaviour before closing, this is commonly called “gun jumping”. The topic has received a lot of attention recently, (...)

As data analytics and pricing algorithms become common business practice in the digital era, there are growing concerns about the possibility that companies use such tools to engage in personalised pricing, a form of price discrimination that involves charging different prices to consumers (...)

Over the course of a single day, most consumers will come into contact with at least one product that is offered to them at a price of zero. Business models centred around the zero-price provision of products are not new. However, in the digital economy, new zero-price markets have arisen with (...)

Many people depend on publicly funded healthcare to lead a productive, fulfilling, and satisfying life. While there is little guidance on where, or how, to introduce choice and competition in healthcare services, there has nevertheless been a steady movement towards the greater use of market (...)

Most OECD jurisdictions protect the confidentiality of the relationship between a client and its attorney, and grant parties in competition proceedings the right to resist disclosure of protected information to public bodies and third parties. Legal professional privilege is a corollary of the (...)

There are strong arguments for not intervening against exploitative excessive pricing conducts, which have led to the development of stringent enforcement screens for the bringing of such cases. However, recent years have seen significant calls for intervention against high prices for (...)

Regional competition agreements (RCAs) hold great potential for both developed and developing jurisdictions by promoting convergence in competition laws and instruments, ensuring effective and efficient cross-border enforcement, and/or by supporting young authorities in their efforts to create (...)

Executive Summary 1. In recent years, there has been growing concern that a trend has emerged in which markets around the world are becoming more concentrated and less competitive. This is sometimes attributed to the increasingly digital and globalised nature of many markets and the firms that (...)

1. Introduction 1. E-commerce – broadly, buying and selling online – is a global phenomenon and an important expanding distribution mechanism across the OECD. During the last decade, e-commerce activities have been growing both in the demand and supply side, as seen by the increasing number of (...)

1. Introduction 1. When firms compete, they make a range of decisions about the characteristics of their products. Consumers make purchasing decisions based on at least some of these characteristics, which determine the value they obtain from the product. Price is one such characteristic, but (...)

1. Introduction 1. Detection and punishment of hard core cartels has been a priority of antitrust enforcement since many years, as they represent one of the most serious violations of competition law, harming consumers and the economy as a whole alike. However, it is difficult to detect such (...)

1. Introduction 1. The focus of the roundtable on effective consumer facing remedies is on how competition authorities and regulators can intervene in markets to make the demand-side work well, delivering benefits for consumers. It builds on work carried out by (...)

Introduction 1. Over the last 10 years, disruptive innovation in transportation radically changed the regulatory and competitive landscape, raising new questions for regulators and competition law enforcers. 2. Different services with different business models entered into the provision of (...)

1. Introduction 1. Blockchain is a general-purpose technology that threatens to disrupt markets and institutions across the world. Where the internet enabled the publishing and digital transfer of information, blockchain authenticates the ownership of assets, makes them unique, traceable, and (...)

Aftermarkets are widespread across the economy. From a competition perspective, the manufacturer of the primary good is often a major supplier in the aftermarket and may enjoy market power in the secondary market, which raises questions as to whether antitrust intervention is warranted to (...)

Executive Summary, by the Secretariat* Working Party No. 3 of the OECD Competition Committee held a Roundtable on the subject of Methodologies for conducting market studies on 20 June 2017. Based on the background paper prepared by the OECD Secretariat, written submissions from delegates, and (...)

Innovation in the electricity sector is beginning to challenge traditional business models of providing households with electricity. In June 2017 the OECD held a discussion to explore possible implications for competition agencies from innovations such as : Peer-to-Peer (P2P) electricity (...)

A key challenge for competition agencies, particularly in digital markets, is the multi-sided nature of some of the markets that they analyse. In June 2017 the OECD held a hearing to look at an important question that competition agencies face : Are the tools traditionally used to define (...)

The combination of data with technologically advanced tools such as pricing algorithms and machine learning is increasingly changing the competitive landscape in the digital markets. There is a growing number of firms using computer algorithms to improve their pricing models, customise services (...)

The first session of the 2016 OECD Global Forum on Competition focused on "Promoting competition, protecting human rights" during its first session. Competition law enforcement depends on an effective system of human rights, most obviously the right to property, the right to contract and rights (...)

Despite the fact that market studies are part of almost all work portfolios of Competition Agencies around the world, there are significant differences on their conception, goals and outcomes. The survey shows that market studies are at minimum, assessments of market structures and analysis of (...)

Agency independence from political power is a key element of an effective competition regime. Competition authorities differ from each other and they operate in jurisdictions which often have significant legal, political and cultural differences. Thus, there is no one size-fit-for-all model for (...)

Competition authorities have imposed substantial fines for competition law violations over the last few decades. Several common steps are observed in setting fines : (i) determination of basic fine ; (ii) adjustments (including aggravating and mitigating circumstances) ; (iii) comparisons to (...)

Executive Summary, by the Secretariat* Working Party No. 3 held a roundtable on 29 November 2016 on Agency Decision-Making in Merger Cases : From a Prohibition Decision to a Conditional Clearance. Considering the roundtable discussion, the delegates’ written contributions, presentations from (...)

In recent years the scope for near perfect price discrimination, particularly in the digital economy, appears to have grown. This raises a question over how those jurisdictions in which exploitative price discrimination is an offence will respond. In contrast, the risk of price discrimination (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * The 126th meeting of the Competition Committee held a Hearing on 29 November 2016 to discuss Big Data and the challenges of adapting competition policy to the digital economy. Considering the background note prepared by the OECD Secretariat with the (...)

Executive Summary, by the Secretariat* Considering the discussion at the roundtable held by Working Party No.2 on 28 November 2016, the delegates’ submissions, the panellists’ presentations and the Secretariat’s background paper, several points are noted : 1. As a result of regulatory and (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat* Working Party No. 3 held a roundtable discussion on 28 November 2016 to discuss geographic market definition across national borders. Considering the roundtable discussion, the delegates’ written contributions, presentations from the expert panellists and (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * From the discussion at the hearing, the delegates’ and experts’ written submissions, several key points emerged : 1. Fidelity rebates or loyalty discount schemes are widely used and are often beneficial for consumers. Rebates based on quantity, and in (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat* Considering the discussion at the roundtable on commitment decisions in non-merger cases, held by the Competition Committee on 17 June 2016, the Secretariat’s background paper, the delegates’ written submissions and presentations by the speakers, several (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable held by Working Party No. 3 on Co-operation and Enforcement on 14 June 2016, the delegates’ submissions, the panellists’ presentations and the Secretariat’s background paper, several points emerged : 1. (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable held by Working Party No.3 on Co-operation and Enforcement on 15June 2016, the delegates’ submissions, the panellists’ presentations and the Secretariat’s background paper, several points are noted : 1. Merger (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * 1. The Roundtable on Disruptive Innovations in Legal Services discussed the way that current legal professional regulations are being (i) challenged by new innovations and (ii) potentially standing in the way of further innovation. The Chairman, Alberto (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat The OECD Secretary-General, Angel Gurría, opened the 14th Global Forum on Competition. Mr. Gurría emphasised the importance for policy makers of considering competition issues, including the impact of competition on employment, in light of the uncertain (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * 1. The 14th meeting of the Global Forum on Competition held a roundtable discussion on 29 October 2015 to discuss the impact of disruptive innovations on competition law enforcement, so as to address three main topics : 1.The business strategy and (...)

This full-day session looked at some sectors where endemic collusion is found and at the extent to which recidivism varies across sectors. It focussed on the following sectors : chemicals ; construction services, including public tenders ; cement and concrete ; and food products. Economic (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * From the discussion at the hearing, the delegates’ and experts’ written submissions, several key points have emerged : 1. There is increasing concern at online platforms using across platform parity agreements (APPAs) that prevent producers from setting (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable on “Cartels Involving Intermediate Goods”, held by Working Party No.3 on Co-operation and Enforcement on 27 October 2015, the Secretariat’s background paper and the delegates’ written submissions and (...)

Competition delegates held a hearing on disruptive innovation in financial markets on 26 October 2015. This hearing examined selected financial market innovations, with a particular view to enhancing competition authority awareness of new and developing competitive alternatives. It focused on : (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable, delegates’ written submissions, and the Secretariat’s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) Since its inception, the ocean liner shipping industry has been governed by the so-called “conferences” – (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * From the discussion at the two Hearings held by WP2 in December 2014 and June 2015, the Issues Notes, the delegates’ submissions and invited presentations and papers, the following points emerge : (1) Competition is indispensable to a well-functioning (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the roundtable discussion, the delegates’ written contributions and the Secretariat paper, the following key points emerge : 1. Competitive neutrality is important to effective competition policy and vice versa. As governments strengthening (...)

Institutional design is a critical component of competition law and policy. Good competition laws on the books are meaningless without well-designed institutions to enforce them. At the same time, many different models exist and working out the optimal institutional design is complex since the (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat On 16 June 2015, the OECD Competition Committee held a Hearing on Disruptive Innovation (“Hearing”). The purpose of the Hearing was to discuss competition policy responses to new technologies or business models that have the potential of profoundly (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the session, the delegations’ written submissions, the expert panellists’ presentations, as well as the Secretariat’s issues paper, several points emerge : 1. Explicit collusive agreements are considered unlawful under (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable held by Working Party No.3 on Co-operation and Enforcement on 15 June 2015, the delegates’ submissions, the panellists’ presentations and the Secretariat’s background paper, several points are noted : (1) (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * From the background paper, the country contributions and the roundtable discussion on the Use of Markers in Leniency Programmes, the following points emerge : (1) There is a general consensus that leniency programmes play a crucial role in ensuring (...)

When customers can choose between different providers, they benefit and so does the economy as a whole. Customer’s abilityto choose forces firms to compete with one another which leads to increased productivity, more innovation and economic growth. However, it can be challenging to measure and (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the hearing, the background paper and the delegates’ and experts’ written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) The existence of standards has encouraged ICT innovation and fast and continuing penetration of ICT (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat* Considering the roundtable discussion and the delegates’ written contributions, the following key points emerge : (1) The existence of originator drugs and innovation by originator companies is vital to develop new treatments against different illnesses (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the roundtable discussion, the delegates’ written contributions and the Secretariat’s background note, the following key points emerge : (1) Air transportation is a vital sector for the global economy, customers and governments. Liberalisation (...)

International co-operation is a core part of the competition-related work at the OECD. The OECD Competition Committee is at the forefront in shaping of new and more effective forms of co-operation to the benefit of enforcers and business. In line with the OECD project on international (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * 1. Considering the discussion at the roundtable and delegates’ written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) Nationwide broadband coverage is considered essential for the economic and social development of a country. Ubiquitous access to broadband (...)

In the last twenty years a number of developed and developing countries around the world have used public-private partnerships in a variety of sectors, ranging from transport and utility infrastructures (e.g. bridges, roads), to social infrastructures (e.g. schools, hospitals and prisons). A (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * From the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates’ submissions and the invited presentations and papers, the following points have emerged : (1) Regulatory needs and competition concerns in the market for the distribution of pharmaceuticals are shaped (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * The 13th edition of the Global Forum on Competition held a roundtable discussion on 27 February 2014 to discuss the fight against corruption and the promotion of competition so as to address five main questions : The relationship between competition and (...)

Nationally and internationally competitive markets should be promoted in order to provide consumers with greater choice amongst financial services. Competitive pressure is needed to encourage providers to offer competitive products, enhance innovation, and maintain high service quality. (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the Note by the Secretariat as well as the delegates’ written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) Competition authorities follow different approaches to the review of consummated and non- notifiable (...)

Competition delegates held a Hearing on the Evaluation of competitive impacts of government interventions in February 2014. Methods for evaluation have been illustrated with respect to specific policy interventions. The evaluations concerned lifting or imposing restrictions, but would not (...)

Technological and policy changes have altered the economics of waste collection and treatment. Landfills are further away from cities and larger. More waste is diverted towards treatments that allow to re-use it, recycle it, or to recover energy from it. Secondary raw materials derived from (...)

Fighting cartels remains a top priority for competition authorities since cartels are secretive in nature and cartelists take good care in concealing their illegal activities. Cartel enforcement can therefore be extremely challenging for competition authorities who most of the times can only (...)

Food processing and retail chains often give rise to competition issues especially due to recent trends of high and volatile commodity prices. The role of anti-trust authorities in addressing competition in the food sector is no different : dealing with anti-competitive mergers, abuse of (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the Note by the Secretariat as well as the delegates’ written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) Cross-border mergers raise specific challenges for competition authorities reviewing the transaction (...)

This topic was suggested as a follow-up discussion to the Competition Committee Report to the OECD Council on the experiences of member countries under the 2005 OECD Recommendation on Merger Review. The 2005 Recommendation provides that a merger regime’s jurisdictional thresholds should be (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat In light of the written submissions and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) The developments of e-commerce have impacted the way competition works and the type of competition concerns that may arise. The literature on e-commerce has (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat The summary of the Hearing is based mainly on the submissions, presentations and interventions of three expert panellists : Xavier Gabaix (New York University), Steffen Huck (University College London), and Maurice Stucke (the University of Tennessee). (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * From the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates’ submissions and invited presentations and papers, several points emerge : (1) Most developments in OECD railway sector reform since 2005 have concerned the ongoing opening-up of rail services to (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable, delegates’ written submissions, and the Secretariat’s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) In a number of OECD countries, road fuel markets are considered competitive at the retail level, with (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * (1) The level of quality that a product offers to consumers is a fundamental aspect of competition in many markets. Quality represents perhaps the key non-price consideration that determines whether consumers will purchase a product. Moreover, quality (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the background paper as well as the delegates’ and experts’ written submissions, several key points emerge : 1. The television and broadcasting sector has been undergoing significant technological and (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * 1. Considering the discussion at the Forum, the delegates’ written submissions, and the Secretariat’s background paper, several key points emerge : 1. Poverty is multidimensional, not defined solely by incomes below an arbitrary level 2. Simple measures (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat * Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates’ submissions, as well as the panellists’ presentations and papers, several points emerge : (1) Restrictions on the number of licences in taxi markets are a key impediment to competition and to (...)

In light of the written submissions and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) An aim of competition enforcement is to identify, stop and deter anti-competitive arrangements and behaviour by market participants, particularly when it has a direct impact on consumer welfare. In (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the background paper, the country contributions and the discussion at the roundtable on leniency for subsequent applicants, the following points emerge : (1) Competition authorities widely rely on leniency policies to detect, investigate and (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Several key points emerge from the discussion at the roundtable, the background paper and the delegates‘ and experts‘ written submissions : (1) Welfare economics points to various sources of efficiency gains. The conflict between allocative vs. productive (...)

The digital economy enables and executes the trade of goods and services through electronic commerce on the Internet. It is a very substantial driver of economic growth and an increasing source of work for competition authorities. Understanding competition in digital markets was the main (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the background papers, discussion by delegates and expert panellists at the Global Forum and countries’ written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) Primary commodity prices are inherently volatile and the current and recent episode is (...)

Market definition is one of the most fundamental concepts underpinning essentially all competition policy issues, from mergers, through dominance/monopolisation to agreements. Market definition provides an analytical framework for the ultimate inquiry of whether a particular conduct or (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the Secretariat background paper and the discussion at the roundtable on unilateral disclosure of information with anticompetitive effects, the following points emerge : (1) Greater transparency in the market is generally efficiency enhancing and, as (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the background paper and the discussion at the roundtable on improving international co- operation in cartel investigations, the following points emerge : (1) The globalisation of business means cartel activity is increasingly international in scope. (...)

Concerns about increasing healthcare expenditures are a major motivation for introducing competition in hospital services. While competition on quality can lead to better outcomes, competition on prices has uncertain results. An active governmental role is key in ensuring quality provision and (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) National courts play a significant role within the process of competition law enforcement. The precise responsibilities of courts vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Within certain systems, the competition authority brings enforcement actions (...)

One of the most controversial theories of harm in competition law in general and within the category of exploitative abuses in particular is excessive prices. Regulatory interventions with the aim of curbing excessive prices are prevalent not only in those jurisdictions that allow for excessive (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable as well as the delegates’ and panellists’ written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) Ex post evaluations of merger decisions can help to assess whether the conclusions in a specific merger decision were (...)

Over the past 20 years, courts and competition authorities have imposed fines and, in some jurisdictions, imprisonment with sharply increasing severity, yet there does not seem to be solid evidence that anti-competitive conduct – particularly cartel conduct – is declining in response. Then again, (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the issues paper and the discussion at the roundtable on remedies in merger cases, the following points emerge : (1) Competition agencies use remedies in merger cases to eliminate any competitive harm that may result as a consequence of a merger. (...)

Ports, whether maritime, inland or river ports, are important pieces of infrastructure that serve a wide range of customers including freight shippers, ferry operators and private boats. One of the main functions of ports is facilitating the domestic and international trade of goods, often on a (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, delegates’ written submissions, and the Secretariat’s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) Quantifying harm to society and/or consumers resulting from anti-competitive conduct and quantifying harm (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) Economic evidence should be based on clear economic theory, and should be transparent, replicable and intuitive to allow non-economists to fully understand the analysis. In order to help companies involved in competition cases to achieve this, a number (...)

Effective merger control of cross-border mergers requires that the countries involved have effective merger control regimes. However, this may be a challenging task in many developing and emerging economies (DEEs) given the complexities of enforcing competition law in these economies. In (...)

The regulated conduct defence allows antitrust immunity where conduct is required by federal or state regulation. The regulated conduct defence is important to ensure that the state can exercise its sovereign power to apply regulation that it deems justified for economic and/or social reasons (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat A discussion on Crisis Cartels from a competition perspective took place during the third session of the 2011 Global Forum on Competition. To prepare this discussion, a background paper, three additional papers prepared by experts and twenty-one (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the written submissions, several key points emerge : (1) When examining an agreement among competitors that pursues environmental policy goals, most competition authorities will apply the generally (...)

Information exchanges among competitors increase transparency in the market, which can lead to efficiency enhancing benefits but may also present competition risks. The challenge for competition enforcers is how to approach this conduct within the context of traditional competition laws. The (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ written submissions and the Secretariat‘s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) Various forms of market-based environmental policies, including taxes and fees, subsidies, and emissions (...)

The use of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, including arbitration and mediation, to resolve commercial disputes with a competition component has increased exponentially in recent years. This interplay between arbitration and competition law has stimulated a lively debate amongst (...)

Tradeable emission permits are considered an efficient instrument for achieving a given emission target at lowest possible economic cost. Tradeable permit schemes, also called cap and trade schemes, have become major pollution control instruments. They have been implemented at a national level (...)

Standard setting yields substantial benefits to consumers and often promotes competition to benefit consumers. Nonetheless, at times, standard setting can give rise to potential consumer harms. By bringing together different players in an industry, the standard setting process provides an (...)

Credit ratings provide an opinion on the relative ability and willingness of parties with debt obligations to meet financial commitments. They have three functions ; to measure the credit risk of the issuer, to provide a means of comparison and to provide a common standard. The credit rating (...)

Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the delegates written submissions, and taking into account the hearing on Competition and Credit Rating Agencies, several key points emerge : (1) The financial crisis was a result of inadequate regulation and credit rating, not inadequate (...)

It is an open question whether competition and corporate governance policies are complements or substitutes, so the Committee held this hearing to gain a better understanding of the interface between the two policies. The delegates discussed conflicts of interest between shareholders and (...)

The roundtable discussion highlighted the importance of transparency and procedural fairness for the parties involved in competition proceedings, as well as for efficient and effective case management by the competition authority. Delegates observed that an established and predictable (...)

Increasingly, governments are adopting targets for the share of electricity that would be generated by renewable sources, such as wind or solar power. The increasing output of renewable energy poses challenges for the electricity supply network, such as how to upgrade and reinforce the main (...)

(1) Measuring competition in financial markets is complex due to their peculiar features, such as switching costs. Concentration, among other structural indicators, is not a good proxy for competition. Although antitrust authorities use measures of market concentration, such as market shares (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the background paper, country contributions and the discussion at the roundtable held at the 2010 Global Forum on Competition, the following key points emerge on Competition policy, State Aids and Subsidies. (1) State aids and subsidies represent a (...)

Collusion and corruption are distinct problems within public procurement, yet they may frequently occur in tandem, and have mutually reinforcing effect. They are best viewed, therefore, as concomitant threats to the integrity of public procurement. The distinctiveness of public procurement and (...)

Due to their privileged position SOEs may negatively affect competition and it is therefore important to ensure that, to the greatest extent possible consistent with their public service responsibilities, they are subject to similar competition disciplines as private enterprises. Although (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) Competition from generic drugs is a desirable policy objective as it typically brings substantial savings to pharmaceutical buyers. However, it should be balanced against the incentives brand manufacturers need to invest in developing innovative new (...)

A margin squeeze occurs when there is such a narrow margin between an integrated provider’s price for selling essential inputs to a rival and its downstream price that the rival cannot survive or effectively compete. A first step in margin squeeze investigations is a detailed inquiry into the (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ written submissions and the Secretariat‘s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) The failing firm defence (FFD) may arise more frequently during financial and economic crises. During (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the country submissions, the Secretariat Issues Paper, and the discussion at the roundtable in June 2009, the following points emerge : (1) Most competition authorities rely on one of two main tests applied to assess whether a merger has (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ written submissions and the Secretariat‘s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) There has been a significant increase in the number and complexity of patent applications filed in the (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge : (1) There is not yet a universally accepted definition of a two-sided market. However, a consensus about the fundamental aspects (...)

Competition issues in the financial sector (1) The financial sector is at the heart of every well-functioning market economy but it is also vulnerable to systemic loss of trust. The financial sector is special. Banks perform intermediation functions that are critical to the real economy. In (...)

It is often said that competition policy protects competition, not indidual competitiors. Policies that support this concept promote consumer welfare, choice and efficiency. How sharply does industrial policy conflict with this ? Industrial policy creates or favours national champions ; yet it (...)

Different definitions have been employed in order to capture different aspects of the informal economy. It often comprises a substantial share of GDP in many developing countries. Many researchers are concerned that informal firms negatively impact an economy because they are typically less (...)

In light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Market developments In the late 1980s there were eight major accounting firms that provided few services other than auditing. Since 2003 there have been only four firms that (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ written submissions, and the background paper, the following key points emerge : (1) Buyer power is concerned with how downstream firms can affect the terms of trade with upstream suppliers. (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the member country submissions, a number of key points emerge : (1) There is great interest in settlements of cartel cases ; many jurisdictions are currently experimenting with slightly different versions (...)

Key documents : Executive summary, by the Secretariat 1. From the country submissions, the background paper, and the discussion at the roundtable in October 2008, the following points emerge : (1). The term “resale price maintenance” (RPM) refers to a particular type of vertical agreement in (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates’ submissions, and the background paper, several key points emerge. (1) Distribution and retailing in the gasoline industry operate under a wide variety of vertical relationships with refiners, (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat From the issues paper, the country submissions, and the discussion at the roundtable on 10 June 2008, the following points emerge : (1) In a “bundled” discount, a combination of products is offered at a lower price than the sum of the prices of the (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the roundtable discussion, the delegates’ written submissions and the issues paper, several key points emerge : (1) The construction industry is a vital component of every OECD economy. The construction sector is responsible for building new (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the delegates’ submissions, several key points emerge. (1) Market studies are a wide-spread component of the work portfolios of competition agencies. Nearly every competition agency conducts market studies (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the member submissions, a number of key points emerge : (1) Modern antitrust enforcement should be based on a clear and objective assessment of effects as identified or measured by sound economic analysis. (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the member country submissions, and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) Minority shareholdings and interlocking directorates can have negative effects on competition, either by reducing (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) Market impacts of land use restrictions Land use restrictions can serve legitimate purposes, but also prevent entry and raise costs. Land use restrictions govern how land can be used and how uses can be changed. Land use restrictions are widespread. (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the Seventh Global Forum on Competition a roundtable discussion was held on the interaction between competition policy and consumer protection policy. There were two main topics in the discussion, one focusing on substance ñ how the two policies share (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat 1. From the issues paper, the country submissions, and the discussion at the roundtable, the following points emerge : (1). The term “refusal to deal” (or “refusal to supply”) describes a situation in which one firm refuses to sell to another firm, is willing (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the member country submissions a number of key points emerge : (1) The assessment of mergers has become increasingly complex, as agencies confront challenging analytical issues, complex contractual (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the member country submissions, and the background paper of the Secretariat, a number of key points (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Restricting the number of taxis (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable and the written submissions, several key points emerge : 1) The concept of “facilitating practices” (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) In complex areas of law, such as the antitrust laws on unilateral conduct, some uncertainty is inevitable. Uncertainty, however, can be costly (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge : (1) The (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Regulation of the legal (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the member country submissions, and the background paper of the Secretariat, a number of key points (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge. (1) Nations differ in (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ written submissions, and the Secretariat‘s background paper, several key points emerge : (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In light of written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : 1. Direct consumer-to-consumer home (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) Plea agreements or negotiated settlements can be an efficient way to formally dispose of cartel cases. They can provide substantial benefits to (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the round table, the delegates’ written submissions and the Secretariat’s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) The pressure of competition can spur innovation, and so can the promise of exclusive intellectual (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion, the delegates’ submissions, and the background paper, several broad results emerge : 1. Competition can improve the (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates’ submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge : Merger analysis in bidding markets (1) The term "bidding market" does not contribute to understanding competition in a market. (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat (1) Different jurisdictions use different definitions and tests to identify firms that are subject to single firm conduct provisions. Overall, (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat General Policies and Principles The first roundtable addressed a broad range of principles and policies concerning private competition law enforcement, including the desirability of private enforcement in general, policy goals it should pursue, and the (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat 1. In light of the written submission, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : 1. Non-cash payment systems serve (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí written submissions and the Secretariat’s background paper, several key points emerge : (1) There is an important difference between" remedies" and "sanctions." Remedies cure, correct, or prevent (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion that took place at the roundtable, the delegatesí submissionsí and the background papers, several key points emerged. (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí written submissions and the Secretariatís background paper, several key points emerge : (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge. (1) New entrants in transportation markets often require access to key infrastructure. Public policies about infrastructure access (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí written submissions and the Secretariatís background paper, several key points emerge : (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : Role of Rivalry for Provision (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates‘ submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge : (1) The concept of (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat 1. Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge. (1) (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note In an increasing number of jurisdictions, public bodies are initiating projects to evaluate the effects of competition policy programs or to analyse the efficiency of competition agency (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegatesí written submissions and the Secretariatís background paper, several key points emerge : (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Services which are subject (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Services which are subject (...)

Over the last 25 years the rail sector in virtually all OECD countries has undergone significant reform. These reforms were usually driven by inefficiency and poor performance within the rail sector and long-term loss of market share to other transport modes. The appropriate role for (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegates’ submissions and the background paper, several key points emerge : 1. Competition law (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : Health Care Professions and (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submission, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : Joint activity by agro-food (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) Competition (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate contributions and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) There are (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : Inefficiency (1) Inefficiencies in (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the member country submissions, and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) As (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the member country submissions, and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) When (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Non-commercial service (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) Market definition in media markets is a particularly difficult and time consuming exercise. Nevertheless, market (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Electricity markets are prone to the exercise of market power due to a combination of factors including : inelastic demand, lack of extensive practical storage of electricity, (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions and the background paper, all of which focused heavily on comparing the (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Competition authorities devote substantial resources to communication using a variety of means to reach different target audiences (i.e. the business community, lawyers, public policy (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) Fidelity (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the written submissions and the Secretariat’s issues paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) In (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Since the last review of (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions, and the background paper, a number of key points emerge : (1) Portfolio (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions, and the background paper, a number of key points emerge. (1) As a general (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Governments of all levels (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Road transport is (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Electronic commerce ("e-commerce") can be defined as business occurring over networks using non-proprietary protocols established through an open standard setting process. Internet mediated e- commerce is the fastest growing part of the phenomenon and was (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions, and the issues paper, a number of key points emerge. (1) The incidence of joint ventures is increasing especially in sectors where innovation costs and, or competition are increasing. (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) The pharmaceutical sector is a high-technology and knowledge-intensive industry. The industry has a two-tier structure. The largest (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions, and the background paper, the following key points emerge : (1) In many (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Demand for natural gas stems primarily from its use as a source of energy, particularly in the provision of heating and in the (...)

Many natural monopolies are the responsibility of local or municipal governments. Do they have incentives to ensure competition and efficiency in the provision of services under their authority ? The answer may depend on central-local government relations and factors such as the size of (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Travellers differ widely, (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Although the details vary (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the delegate submissions, and the background paper, the following key points emerge : Mutually aware (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) Postal services are one (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the background paper, and delegate submissions, the following key points emerge : (1) The last twenty (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Digitalisation of information content and communication channels is bringing countries closer to the point where any information or entertainment content can be delivered down any (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the discussion, the following points emerge : (1) A large and growing number of (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the background paper, the country submissions and the oral discussion the following points emerge : (1) Procurement - the purchase (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat In the light of the written submissions, the background note and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) The insurance industry is (...)

In the light of the country submissions and the oral discussion, the following points emerge : (1) The last two decades have witnessed a significant change in banking regulation. On the one hand, there has been a substantial relaxation in certain regulations such as direct controls on interest (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Considering the discussion at the roundtable, the background paper, and papers by panellists and delegates, the following key points emerge : (1) (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note The 1997 examination of the railway sectors of OECD countries raised classic issues of regulation and competition, including definition of the market, scope of the natural monopoly, (...)

Executive summary, by the Secretariat Looking back over the discussion and the country submissions, the following points emerge : (1) Regulatory concern over airports (and therefore of slots) stems from a lack of inter-airport competition at many major cities. Restrictions on inter-airport (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Resale price maintenance (RPM) specifies the final price that retailers charge consumers. This roundtable focused on the use of RPM for books, newspapers and similar cultural products. (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Executive summary, by the Secretariat Introduction An effective competition policy is a necessary element in the efficient operation of market economies, and the significance of (...)

Key documents : Executive Summary with key findings, Detailled Summary of the discussion, Background note Liberalisation of this sector, underway in many Member countries, can have significant effects and can benefit consumers. Country contributions addressed several questions. Is structural (...)

Satellite television with dedicated sports channels considerably increased the market for sports broadcasts. Sports bodies and event organisers perceive that they have market power to influence competition among TV channels and the market for sports equipment. Sports federations and leagues (...)

The Roundtable debated conditions for exempting horizontal co-operation among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from general prohibitions against cartels. In a number of countries, either a legal provision exempts agreements between SMEs or such agreements are allowed under a de (...)

Key documents : Background note Technological innovation has significant welfare implications. Competitive markets provide incentives to innovate, and innovation can be a catalyst for further competition. But economic analysis provides limited insight into the relationship between competition (...)

Key documents : Background note The competition laws of many OECD countries contain a concept of single firm exploitation of market power or use of improper means of attaining or retaining market power. Some laws also contain the concept of “joint dominance”, distinct from multiple firms acting (...)

An essential facilities doctrine specifies when the owner(s) of an “essential” or “bottleneck” facility must provide access to that facility, at a reasonable price. For example, it might specify when a railroad must be made available on reasonable terms to a rival rail company or an electricity (...)

Key documents : Background note Since the creation of international satellite organisations (ISOs), technology and institutions have changed. Fibre optic cable has greatly increased connectivity. Satellites and ground stations have become more efficient. Private satellite systems have (...)

Key documents : Background note In 1996, at the time of the roundtable, an unprecedented wave of deregulation and liberalisation had started in the telecommunications sector. Participants discussed institutional aspects of antitrust and regulation in the sector. One issue was whether (...)

Key documents : Background note Efficiency claims play a key role in the analysis of mergers and horizontal agreements. Static efficiencies, associated with the production and distribution of existing products, are most often considered relevant. Dynamic efficiencies, of improved processes (...)

Key documents : Background note Competition in film distribution, which has long been a concern, is now affected by the development of alternative methods of film distribution through television and video. Competition analysis of film distribution must examine : i) the relevant market (...)

The perilous financial condition of a merging firm may change the analysis by a competition authority of an otherwise anticompetitive merger. The authority should assess not only what will happen if the merger is permitted, but also what will happen if it is blocked. Several questions arise (...)

Key documents : Background note The analytical note reviews modes of environmental regulation and identifies some anticompetitive effects that can accompany them. Such regulations might be used to gain a competitive advantage. A common principle of the different modes of intervention, whether (...)

Patents give inventors property rights to the exclusive use of their invention for a specified period of time. The profits stemming from a patent are socially useful because they encourage inventive activity. In the absence of patents, competitive industries may produce too few inventions. (...)

This term is also referred to as package tie-in and tends to occur when one product is sold in proportion to another as a requirement for the sale. It is related to the concept of tied selling. For example, a computer manufacturer may require customers to purchase along with the computer all or (...)

Indice de Herfindahl-Hirschmann Indice de concentration du marché, c’est-à-dire de la mesure dans laquelle un petit nombre d’entreprises représentent une grande partie de la production. L’IHH est utilisé comme un indicateur possible du pouvoir de marché ou de la concurrence qui s’exerce entre (...)

Prices and price changes established by a dominant firm, or a firm accepted by others as the leader, and which other firms in the industry adopt and follow. When price leadership is adopted to facilitate collusion, the price leader will generally tend to set a price high enough that the least (...)

The Cournot model of oligopoly assumes that rival firms produce a homogenous product, and each attempts to maximize profits by choosing how much to produce. All firms choose output (quantity) simultaneously. The basic Cournot assumption is that each firm chooses its quantity, taking as given (...)

Administered prices are prices set by firms that do not vary in response to short-run fluctuations in demand and supply conditions. This price rigidity has been viewed by some economists as arising from the exercise of market power. Various research studies have been conducted attempting to (...)

In a Bertrand model of oligopoly, firms independently choose prices (not quantities) in order to maximize profits. This is accomplished by assuming that rivals’ prices are taken as given. The resulting equilibrium is a Nash equilibrium in prices, referred to as a Bertrand (Nash) equilibrium. (...)

Restrictions placed on the ability of firms to export. Such restrictions may come from governments, normally to protect or conserve non-renewable resources or cultural treasures. They may also come from agreements among firms to limit exports as part of a cartel arrangement. These restrictions (...)

Les principes de base concernant le contrôle des aides d’État et autres afin qu’elles ne faussent pas la concurrence, se trouvent dans les articles 107 à 109 du Traité sur le fonctionnement de l’Union européenne. La Commission détermine si une aide est contraire à la norme du Traité. Elle peut (...)

Les obligations de services non commerciaux sont des obligations de fournir un service d’une qualité donnée à un prix « raisonnable » pour les consommateurs. Ces obligations font dans une large mesure double emploi avec ce que l’on qualifie parfois d’obligations de service universel, d’obligations de (...)

Il est interdit de revendre ou d’annoncer la revente d’un produit en l’état au-dessous du prix d’achat effectif, notion qui détermine le seuil de revente à perte. Le prix d’achat effectif est le prix unitaire net figurant sur la facture d’achat, minoré du montant de l’ensemble des autres avantages (...)

La doctrine de l’action des États est le produit de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour suprême en 1943 dans l’affaire Parker v. Brown, selon lequel, compte-tenu du statut souverain des États et des principes du fédéralisme, le Congrès n’aurait pas entendu vouloir empiéter sur les prérogatives des États par le (...)

Refers to a wide range of business practices in which a firm or group of firms may engage in order to restrict inter-firm competition to maintain or increase their relative market position and profits without necessarily providing goods and services at a lower cost or of higher quality. The (...)

L’action publique en droit de la concurrence désigne l’action menée par la puissance publique, par exemple l’autorité de la concurrence ou le ministère public, pour découvrir et sanctionner les auteurs de violations des règles relatives à la concurrence. L’action privée recouvre au contraire les (...)

Voir Prix d’éviction

Voir Discrimination par les prix

(...) distinction entre groupes de sociétés et groupes économiques en suggérant que les groupes de sociétés se réfèrent à un ensemble de relations plus formelles (juridiques) impliquant généralement une société holding ou de contrôle et ses filiales ; tandis qu’un groupe économique peut impliquer des (...)

Stratégie (délibérée) d’une entreprise, généralement en position dominante, qui consiste à évincer les concurrents du marché en fixant des prix inférieurs aux coûts de production. Si l’entreprise « prédatrice » réussit à éliminer ses concurrents existants du marché et à dissuader de nouvelles entreprises (...)

Les échanges d’informations sont des contacts entre concurrents qui, du point de vue du droit de la concurrence, se situent entre les ententes injustifiables pures, qui sont interdites partout, et les collusions tacites qui résultent d’une interdépendance oligopolistique, lesquelles sont en général (...)

Pratique commerciale consistant à lier la vente d’un produit à l’achat d’un autre produit. Cette pratique peut restreindre la concurrence si elle n’est pas objectivement justifiée par la nature des produits ou leur usage commercial. La théorie économique tend à montrer qu’une entreprise qui dispose (...)

Accords ou pratiques concertées entre un fournisseur et un distributeur ayant directement ou indirectement pour objet l’établissement d’un prix de vente fixe ou minimum ou d’un niveau de prix de vente fixe ou minimum que le distributeur doit appliquer lorsqu’il revend un produit/service à ses (...)

Pouvoir d’une entreprise sur un marché donné. En économie, le pouvoir de marché désigne à la base la capacité des entreprises à fixer des prix supérieurs au coût marginal d’une manière que ceci soit rentable. En matière de concurrence, le pouvoir de marché est déterminé à l’aide d’une analyse structurelle (...)

Transfert du patrimoine d’une ou de plusieurs sociétés à une autre société, au moyen de l’absorption par une société préexistante ou de la création d’une société nouvelle. La fusion est une opération par laquelle les sociétés peuvent accroître leur taille, développer des activités existantes ou nouvelles et (...)

Structure du marché caractérisée par un nombre très limité de vendeurs qui ont conscience de leur interdépendance lorsqu’ils adoptent des décisions stratégiques concernant, par exemple le prix, la production et la qualité. Au sein d’un oligopole, chaque entreprise sait que son comportement sur le marché (...)

La définition du marché en cause permet d’identifier et de définir le périmètre à l’intérieur duquel s’exerce la concurrence entre entreprises. Elle permet d’établir le cadre dans lequel la Commission applique la politique de la concurrence. Son objet principal est d’identifier de manière systématique (...)

Forme particulière de coordination entre entreprises pouvant influencer l’issue d’une procédure de vente ou d’achat dans laquelle des offres sont soumises. Par exemple, des entreprises peuvent convenir à l’avance de leurs offres respectives et décider de l’entreprise qui fera l’offre la plus basse. (...)

Voir Réglementation des prix

On entend par « compression de marge » ou « étranglement de marge » un abus de position dominante visant à évincer un concurrent du marché lorsqu’une entreprise monopolistique verticalement intégrée vend un intrant d’amont indispensable à des sociétés qui vendent un produit sur un marché d’aval où elles (...)

Les prix de transfert sont le prix auxquels une enterprise transfert des biens corporels, actifs incorporels, ou rend des servies à des entreprises associées. (...) Si les prix de transfert sont importants aussi bien pour les contribuables que pour les administrations fiscales, c’est parce (...)

Dès lors que deux entreprises envisagent un rapprochement, elles sont dans l’obligation d’attendre l’autorisation de l’Autorité pour le mettre en œuvre. Le contrôle des concentrations a un effet suspensif sur la réalisation des opérations. L’interdiction de la réalisation anticipée de l’opération a (...)

Les organisations professionnelles rassemblent les acteurs d’un même secteur d’activité. Elles peuvent prendre la forme d’association, de syndicat, d’ordre professionnel, de fédération ou de comité. Elles ont pour fonction de promouvoir, de réglementer et de protéger les intérêts d’une ou plusieurs (...)

Facteurs qui empêchent ou entravent l’entrée d’entreprises sur un marché donné. Elles peuvent résulter par exemple d’une structure de marché particulière (segment coûts fixes irrécupérables, fidélité des consommateurs aux marques des produits existants) ou du comportement des entreprises déjà en place. Il (...)

Dans le contexte de l’économie industrielle, et du droit et de Ia politique de la concurrence, on entend par « efficience » le mode d’utilisation optimale de ressources rares. On distingue généralement deux types d’efficience : l’efficience technologique (ou technique) et l’efficience économique (...)

On considère généralement qu’il y a contrôle d’une société lorsqu’une personne physique ou un groupe d’investisseurs détient plus de 50 pour cent des actions ordinaires portant droit de vote de la société en question. Mais il peut y avoir contrôle de fait lorsque le ou les investisseurs détiennent un gros (...)

Prix nettement supérieurs au niveau de concurrence, du fait de l’existence d’un monopole ou de l’exercice d’une puissance sur le marché. Toutefois, à défaut d’association frauduleuse ou d’entente sur les prix, ou de preuve d’une puissance sur le marché provenant d’une forte concentration, il est (...)

A measure proposed by economist A.P. Lerner to measure monopoly or market power. The Lerner Index (LI) is : In perfect competition, LI is equal to zero. The index defines monopoly power in terms of the slope of the demand curve. In the case of a profit maximizing firm in equilibrium, marginal (...)

Autorisation légale de faire, par exemple de fabriquer un produit. Le licencié se voit transférer un droit qu’il n’avait pas auparavant. Certaines licences sont octroyées gratuitement mais la plupart d’entre elles sont accordées à titre onéreux. Les licences sont des contrats juridiques qui peuvent (...)

Il y a discrimination par les prix lorsque, sur différents segments du marché, la clientèle ne se voit pas appliquer un même prix pour un même bien ou service, alors même que cette différence de prix n’est pas liée à des différences de coûts. La discrimination par les prix n’est efficace que si les (...)

Accord conclu entre plusieurs vendeurs pour fixer ou augmenter les prix de manière à restreindre la concurrence entre les entreprises participantes et à accroître leurs profits. En concluant un tel accord, les entreprises s’efforcent de se comporter collectivement comme un monopole. © OCDE Voir (...)

Refus de vendre un bien ou de fournir la prestation d’un service, oppose généralement à un détaillant ou à un grossiste. Cette pratique peut avoir plusieurs buts : contraindre un détaillant à respecter des prix imposés, c’est-à-dire l’empêcher de vendre au rabais, conforter un accord de distribution (...)

Transfert au secteur privé de la propriété et du contrôle de biens, d’entreprises et d’activités relevant précédemment du secteur public. Ce transfert se fait sous la forme de l’émission et de la vente ou de la distribution directe d’actions au profit du grand public. Au sens large, la privatisation (...)

Démarche consistant, pour les autorités ou les juridictions compétentes en matière de droit de la concurrence, à mettre en balance les aspects proconcurrentiels et anticoncurrentiels d’une pratique commerciale restrictive lorsqu’elles ont à statuer sur sa possible interdiction. Certaines pratiques à (...)

Pratiques mises en oeuvre par les fabricants ou les fournisseurs et concernant la revente de leurs produits. Les pratiques fréquentes dans ce domaine sont les prix imposés, la distribution exclusive et l’exclusivité territoriale ou les autres restrictions géographiques sur le marché. Dans un (...)

Se caractérisent ainsi les accords exprès ou tacites conclus dans leur intérêt mutuel par des entreprises normalement concurrentes. Les accords en vue de restreindre la concurrence peuvent porter sur les prix, la production, les marchés et la clientèle. Ils sont souvent assimilés à des ententes (...)

Terme généralement employé pour désigner le fait, pour un État souverain, d’avoir juridiction sur des étrangers à l’égard d’actes commis en dehors des frontières de cet État. On pourrait dire qu’au sens très large, l’UE applique ses règles de concurrence d’une manière extraterritoriale lorsqu’elle invoque la (...)

Type particulier d’accord par lequel une entreprise (le franchiseur) concède à une autre (le franchisé), moyennant une compensation financière directe ou indirecte, le droit d’exploiter un ensemble de droits de propriété industrielle ou intellectuelle (franchise) aux fins de la production et/ou de la (...)

Concurrence intra-marque : Concurrence que se livrent, en termes de prix ou autres, distributeurs ou détaillants sur un produit de même marque. Par exemple, un jean Levi’s peut être vendu moins cher dans un magasin de rabais par rapport à un grand magasin, mais souvent sans les facilités de (...)

Terme générique désignant l’attribution de droits de propriété au moyen de brevets, de droits d’auteur ou de marques de commerce, par exemple. Ces droits de propriété confèrent à leur titulaire le droit exclusif d’exploiter l’innovation. Celui-ci jouit ainsi du monopole d’utilisation du produit, (...)

Arrangements entre entreprises concurrentes destinés à limiter ou à éliminer la concurrence s’exerçant entre elles, dans le but d’augmenter les prix et les bénéfices des entreprises participantes, sans produire d’avantages compensatoires objectifs. Dans la pratique, ces arrangements consistent (...)

Association d’entreprises ou de personnes physiques constituée en vue de mener à bien un projet précis. Selon les règles de concurrence de l’UE, les entreprises communes sont des entreprises contrôlées en commun par au moins deux autres entreprises. Dans la pratique, la notion recouvre un large (...)

Une entreprise est défaillante lorsqu’elle accuse durablement des pertes et voit sa part de marché se contracter de telle sorte qu’on peut s’attendre à ce qu’elle disparaisse. La notion d’entreprise défaillante présente un intérêt tout particulier pour le contrôle des concentrations. En effet, la société (...)

Pratiques commerciales anticoncurrentielles (y compris l’exploitation incorrecte de clients ou l’éviction de concurrents) auxquelles est susceptible de se livrer une entreprise en position dominante pour conserver ou renforcer sa position sur le marché. Le droit de la concurrence interdit ce type (...)